Carl Jung’s Theory on Personality

All across the States, literacy and wee grooming of sisterren has become the focus of concern for p atomic number 18nts, t all(prenominal)ers, and policy makers. Education has been positively linked to educatees future success in indoctrinate, their likelihood to continue education past gritty school, and their future c beer opportunities. A strong base of operations in narration and linguistics is a key factor in nipperrens pedantic discipline and future opportunities.As a outcome, a enceinte deal of time, m acey, and energy has been invested in designing programs that focus on offshoot childrens knowledge and use of the English voice communication in nightclub to provide them with this necessary educational set upation. However, upon close inspection, it seems as though m some(prenominal) an(prenominal) anformer(a)(prenominal) of these programs focus on correcting only one or two of the many factors at work in the issue of illiteracy in the Statess urban youth. age a mixing of denotation programs are avail competent in close every school, there are static a signifi keistert number of illiterate and struggling students across the nation. Of particular concern is the school preparation of children from economically discriminate homes children who continue to fol humbled less rise in school than much advantaged children (Stipek 711). 40% of Americas foursometh grade students lack basic meter read skills, only when the illiteracy rate increases to 68% for low-income plain and urban areas (Literacy Rates).Research has shown that children who grow up in poor, urban areas struggle the to the highest degree with reading for a variety of reasons. Despite signifi dealt federal and state investments in compensatory education programs, decided work faults among students of various ethnic, socioeconomic, and linguistic backgrounds hold back been difficult to close (Neuman 92). This shows that resources are avail satisfactory to s chools and districts that face issues with low literacy rates, alone the problem persists. In a direct of gaps in reading acquisition by Parkinson and Rowan, statistical outline was do on the test scores of high-, average-, and low-risk students upon entering kindergarten through the finish of tierce grade (Neuman 80).Placing these scores on a statistical regulation curve helped determine how much the gap between these groups change magnitude as education progressed, and showed signifi rouset evidence that socioeconomic factors impact the education of unseasoned children. These test scores were then use for further statistical compendium to determine the amount of addendumal control time it would take at-risk students to flip over the same achievement level as average and low-risk students.By calculating the measure deviation of each groups test scores, Parkinson and Rowan were able to then convert that to months of additional knowledge necessary to decrease the gaps in reading achievement. In order to match high-risk students achievement with that of average-risk students, 1. 6 months of extra teaching would be necessary at the counterbalance of kindergarten, barely by the end of the third grade, the time had increased to 4. 7 months. When comparing high-risk and low-risk students achievement, 2. months of instruction were needed at the beginning of kindergarten, whereas the end of third grade required 7. 8 months (Neuman 80). While Parkinson and Rowan acknowledge variations and contingent issues with the data they collected and break apartd, these calculations still show the effects of socioeconomic factors on educational achievement. In a analogous study by Stipek and Ryan on disadvantaged preschoolers and academic want, this education gap is explored as a result of lack of motivation.Surveying and calculating the academic achievement of several rowroom groups in preschool and kindergarten originaten a similar gap in academic achiev ement to that prime by Parkinson and Rowan. The results of this study paint a clear examine of children from relatively low-income homes beginning school at a considerable academic disadvantage (Stipek, 720). Through several cognitive assessments of skills including problem solving, reading, and language skills, this study attempted to identify where students of low socioeconomic backgrounds struggled the nearly.Statistically significant differences were found in each of these assessments for each age group, so to further look into these results, motivation and gender factors were researched as well. In contrast to the adventureings on cognitive variables, the results revealed al to the highest degree no motivation famines for the economically disadvantaged children (Stipek 721). What undersize differences were found connected to gender were rare and did not suggest any real imitate of academic achievement. While this study ooked into gender and motivation as factors in aca demic achievement differences, these proved insignificant to explain the achievement gap between students of varying socioeconomic backgrounds. Rather than continue to focus on individual factors, like gender and motivation, that had been proven to prolong little moment in explaining the education gap, other researchers subscribe taken up the measure of family inter-group communication and home environment on childrens academic ontogeny.According to McLoyd and Purtell, present-day(a) esearchers tend to symbolise links between family income and home environment deep down an investment model (i. e. , the notion that income is associated with childrens development because it enables families to invest in the human capital of their children by purchasing reals, experiences, and services that benefit the childs development and well-being) rather than within a cultural deficit model (Neuman 58). Reasoning behind this focus can be found in the history of urban areas and the famil ies that live in them, presented by Shirley Heath.In the denomination Oral and Literate Traditions Among Black Americans Living in Poverty, Heath explains, in the late 1980s, n primeval half of all Black children lived in meagreness, and most of these, especially in urban areas, grew up in categorys headed by a convey under 25 years of age who was a school dropout (Heath, 3). She continues to explain how ethnic groups, linguistic differences, and religious or regional factors can make finding trustworthy childcare difficult for single mothers, set further financial strain on the environment.Financial strain can fall in a negative effect on the focus put on education in homes with both produces and/or high socioeconomic stipulation. This can in like manner erode family bonds and leave students more vulnerable to the presence of drugs and other negative inner-city influences. By getting involved in drugs, gangs, and other offensive influences, education is forgotten, cripplin g academic achievement and future opportunities, and prolonging the wheel around of want in poor urban households.While Heath explains the prevalence of this cycle of poverty through interviews and own(prenominal) perspectives she collected, Manuel Bueno explains the many and persistent affects it has on proto(prenominal) puerility development. A shortfall in early childishness development get out have irreversible consequences on individuals future lifetime opportunities. This forget retract later in life in the form of lower caliber jobs, lower wages, shorter life-spans, worse health and lower cognitive abilities, thus perpetuating an intergenerational cycle of poverty (Bueno).Unlike many articles regarding early childhood development, Bueno also acknowledges the importance of non-nuclear family structures, express the importance of involving a childs primary caretaker rather than the mother or father. Especially in poor urban areas, a household can include members of th e extended family just as often as it can exclude a childs biological parents. Bueno suggests creating early childhood development programs that are both multi-faceted and family inclusive.The most successful of the programs Bueno suggests is referred to as parenting programs that work to include parents in childrens education to give them an expeditious and responsible role in their childs development, and provide reenforcement at home for the things learned in school. The value of these programs is also express by a number of other authors. Charles R. Greenwood is one of the forerunners in the public debate for the ecological-interactional-developmental model that investigates the home environment effects on early childhood development.He explains the Hart and Risley Code used to measure individual childrens growth in stopping point to talk as well as the childs language environment, consisting of parents, siblings, and friends talk heard by the child in the home and address ed directly to the child (Neuman 116). By recording audiotapes of conversations and interactions, Greenwood was able to analyze these observations using Hart and Risley Code. Similar observations and analyses were make in affiliateroom settings to study students responses to instruction.These findings were compared to those found in the home environment, where Greenwood explains near interesting familiaritys. Through the use of Hart and Risley, Greenwood was able to find that children from families of low-socioeconomic status were spoken to less frequently and with fewer words. Children from similar socioeconomic statuses also scored lower on vocabulary tests and struggled with basic academic skills, which crippled their early literacy and school readiness by kindergarten age. By this research, Greenwood was able to conclude that children from low ocio-economic status were less exposed to language and therefore did not learn as much. Further probe showed that this put a strain o n the childrens school readiness, resulting in an education gap similar to that found by Parkinson and Rowan, which grows as students progress in their schooling. Class wide helpmate tutoring is a program developed and implemented by several researchers, including Greenwood, to investigate whether or not students of lowsocioeconomic status families respond make better to one-on-one instruction with a tutor outside of the classroom.For ninety minutes a day, four days per week, students met with a tutor on top of regular instruction to complete lessons in reading, spelling, and math instruction. Results indicated that these lessons significantly improved students classroom encounter during instruction and reduced socially inappropriate behavior, while accelerating reading, language, and mathematics slaying on standardized tests (Neuman 125). Once the positive impact of this supplemental instruction was established, further research was conducted with catch-assisted learning strate gies in which students share the role of teacher in small reading groups.Thirty-five to forty-five minute sessions were conducted daily, in which students were unconnected up into groups of three to practice reading aloud to each other. individual(a) points are awarded and group totals are used to determine a succeeder each day. The immediate affects this peer-assisted strategy were significant increases in accuracy, fluency, and comprehension of the material read by students (Neuman 122). After explaining the details of both the one-on-one tutoring and peer-assisted learning strategies, Greenwood discusses their effectiveness as the results showed clean 59% of participants exceeded the achievement of non-participants. Students in urban settings, from low-income backgrounds, and of minority status experienced larger gains than students from suburban middle- to high-income backgrounds (Neuman 126). It was also celebrated that younger students were affected greater than older st udents. This study shows that while peer tutoring and one-on-one instruction outside the classroom can improve student achievement, it cannot be used as a panacea for the achievement gap. While Greenwood put his focus on supplemental instruction programs to improve literacy in students from low socioeconomic households, Come andFredericks chose to investigate the involvement of parents in reading programs. They claim that poor families avoiding schools is frequently perceived by educators to be a lack of parental interest in childrens education and, upon investigation of an inner city Georgia school, found that 45% of the children had no one to read to them at home (Come 567). This school had developed several programs intentional to help increase the self-esteem of children through parental encouragement and involvement in literacy development.One program knowing to include parents in childrens reading was a monthly rewards system. If a student read with a parent for at least fif teen minutes each day for a month, it was marked on a calendar, submitted to the teacher, and the student was rewarded for his or her accomplishment, boosting confidence and reading proficiency. This program was assisted by a school wide criminal record supervene upon, in which the students themselves improved introduction to impudent reading material. When they brought two books to school, they could exchange one book for a book to keep and the other for a book to donate to their classroom library (Come 569). Accompanied by a cross-age reading program that paired students in different grades for cooperative reading groups, this book exchange reinforced by parental involvement proved to have significant improvements on childrens reading aptitude in the inner city Georgia school. These programs proved to be useful in the development of students reading ability and confidence, as well as the involvement of parents in their childrens education.However, inner-city schools are freque ntly a melting pot of ethnicities and languages, which can put more strain on childrens education if schools do not include language development in reading programs. In a study done by William Louden, a project called Literacy in its Place was investigated to compare literacy programs in rural and urban schools. Initial research suggested that the reported difference in urban and rural scores could be explained by differences in social class distribution between the country and the city (Louden 1).When these factors were taken into account, surprisingly little significance was found. Instead, it was found that children from operative class homes, specifically homes in which English is a second language or dialect, were more academically disadvantaged than other students. Louden focuses the rest of his research on professional development for teachers to better assist multilingual students and their parents become actively involved in mastering the English language and developing re ading skills. While this supports the consensus of the previously discussed authors that hildren from low-income homes struggle more with school, it introduces language development as a new focus for further research. Mahiri and Sablo introduce research into language as a factor in academic achievement and literacy by investigating the volunteer(prenominal) writing of African American students in a California high school. This study was initiated because, in our overall quest to look at ship canal that African American and youth culture could be used as a bridge to writing development, we wanted to learn more about the kinds of writing these students do for their own purposes outside of school (Mahiri 165).In this case, writing is seen as an outlet through which students are free to express themselves in whatever vernacular they are most comfortable with, without conforming to school standards or expectations. By investigating students use of language in out-of-school settings, M ahiri and Sablo hoped to better link what schools view as main(prenominal) and meaningful in lessons, and what students find meaningful in their daily lives.In this study, it was found that minority students were predominantly in basic and academic classes, as opposed to honors or advanced placement, and acting well below the average scores on standardized tests. Statistics provided by the school, which remained unnamed, showed a 44% failure rate for African American students that began as freshman there. Through an analysis of several pieces of literature written by the students included in the research, and the methods for instruction used by their teachers, little connection was found to suggest culturally relevant topics were being included in instruction.Students were applying information obtained at school to improve their skills and express themselves, but instructors made little effort to do the same. The teachers included in the study recognized that urban culture and sc hools were changing and that these changes would require them to adjust as well, but were having trouble doing so. Mahiri and Sablo also recognize that including culturally relevant material in school instruction and literacy activities would not solve the problems students faced with literacy development.However, their research suggests that it may help with the development of language and reading skills by giving students something that they can relate to and understand based on their own interests. Ernest Morrell addresses this in the article, Toward a Critical Pedagogy of Popular Culture Literacy Development among Urban Youth. Ernest Morrell, a former teacher in urban schools, claims that low academic achievement is not the result of a lack of interest, intelligence, or other personal factors in urban students.Instead, he suggests that the issue lies with a lack of access to curriculum and resources. Working from the correlation Mahiri found with urban youth literacy practices and the types of practices express by schools, Morrell suggests that any investigation of popular culture must emanate from and serve the interests of members of marginalized groupswhere students and teachers learn from and with one another while engaging in authentic dialogue that is centered on the experiences of urban youth as participants in and creators of popular culture (Morrell 2).As an example, he explains programs he designed and used in his own classroom, where hip-hop culture, popular film, and the media were incorporated into each unit. When beginning a unit on English poetry, Morrell introduced the importance of learning the context in which poetry was written to obtain a better dread of the literature. The same idea was applied to hip-hop and rap music that students in the class were familiar with.For the final project, students were given rap songs to choose from and interpret based on contextual concepts and interpretations that apply to English poetry. As a res ult, students were inspired to create their own rap/poetry, and were able to better take on with the material because it was tied to larger social issues they could relate to. A similar idea was used in units on popular film and on-line(prenominal) media. Several movies related to books and assigned reading material were watched in class while students took notes comparing characters, writing styles, and story structure.News segments were also watched to help students analyze portrayals of stories in the media, conduct interviews, and complete a research project on a current topic in the news. Based on his observations of the students in his classroom, Morrell found that critical teachers and teacher educators can use classroom-based research to prove that there are ways to meet the challenges the new century offers and crop them into opportunities to connect to the worlds of students, to promote academic achievement, and to prepare students for critical citizen ship in a multicu ltural democracy (Morrell 4).Through an investigation of current studies being done on reading programs and language development in urban schools, it is uncomplicated to see what students struggle with and why. Students from urban neighborhoods tend to be poor working families where English may not be the primary language. Some researchers have interpreted the struggles of these students as a lack of involvement from parents and programs have been designed to better include them in their childs education. While these have proven to be somewhat successful, they do not solve any issues beyond increasing parental involvement.Other less successful programs have been designed to increase students access to school resources, thinking that increased access will increase reading comprehension and proficiency. While this also proved somewhat successful, it can only be applied to schools where budget issues do not limit those resources. Family structure, student motivation, and gender have a lso been investigated as affirmable factors in the literacy of urban youth, but proved to have an insignificant effect.The most successful research and program development has been a result of feature individually researched ideas. Developing programs that incorporate popular culture has proven to postulate students better than regular classroom material and often on more a personal level. Peer tutoring and other cooperative learning programs have proven to be somewhat successful because they allow students to encourage each other in their responsibilities, but this can by further increased by the inclusion of popular culture in the material.These ideas, in addition to increasing parental involvement and increasing students access to resources, have had the most significant impact on education and literacy development. It is the incorporation of urban culture into education that further research should be conducted on. By understanding what is important and relevant to students a nd including that in their education, a platform can be created from which literacy and language skills can be developed.